Yoga: Pre-Vedic, Vedic, Shamanic period.
The Pre-Vedic Period (Before 3,000 BCE)
The Pre-Vedic period has its roots with the Indus-Sarasvati people of the Indus valley
in northern India. This period of yoga history also referred to as being in the Indic tradition.
John Marshall has found evidence from this time, including the best-known a seated
figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals that seem yogic. This pose could be
showing yogi (Claimed to Shiva or Rudra) in meditation and using some asana pose. He
notes that the “Pashupati” (Lord of all animals) seal found in an Indus Valley Civilization
site describes a figure in a position resembling an asana used for meditation. It suggests that
Yoga was known and practiced even in those early stages of civilization (John Marshall,
1931).
John Marshall worked in the Harappa sites that set the trend for Hindu interpretations
of archaeological evidence in 1931. He identified the following as prominent features of the
Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; an early form of the Hindu god
Shiva who is associated with asceticism; deification or veneration of beasts and plants; a
symbolic demonstration of the “phallus” (linga) and “vulva” (yoni), and using of baths and
water in religious practice. Possibly, the Indic people have received the view of deities and
religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area.
However, due to the pieces of evidence which are open to varying interpretations, and
the fact that the Indus script remains cannot decipher, the conclusions are partly speculative
and primarily created on a reconsidering view from a much later Hindu viewpoint. On the other hands, Doris Srinivasan has disputed that the figure does not have three appearances or
yogic position and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals (Doris
Srinivasan, 1975).
Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also refused Marshall's conclusions; with the
previous claiming that the composition was female, while the latter connected the figure with
mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vāhanas (vehicles) of deities for
the four cardinal directions (Herbert Sullivan, 1964 and Alf Hiltebeitel, 2011).
Gregory L. Possehl determined that while it would be appropriate to recognize the composition as a god, its association with the water buffalo, and its position as one of ritual
discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far (Gregory L. Possehl, 2002).
Despite the criticisms of Marshall’s association of the seal with a Proto-Shiva icon, it
has been interpreted as the “Tirthankara Rishabhanatha” by (Jains and Vilas Sangave, 2001)
Bibliography
Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). “The Indus Valley “Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on
the
Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas”. In Adluri, Vishwa;
Bagchee, Joydeep (eds.). When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata
Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel. Brill.
Marshall, John (editor) (1931). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official
Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the
Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. London: Arthur Probsthain.
Possehl, Gregory L. (2002), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Rowman
Altamira,
pp. 237–245
Srinivasan, Doris (1975). “The so-called Proto-Śiva seal from Mohenjo Daro An iconological
assessment”. Archives of Asian Art. 29: 47–58.
Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). “A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus
Civilization”. History of
Religions. 4 (1): 115–125.
Vilas Sangave (2001). Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society,
Religion, and
Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan.
Credit the photo to https://images.app.goo.gl
Vedic Period (1700–500 BCE)
The Vedas is the sacred scripture of Brahmanism, which is a collection of hymns that
praise divine power. The Vedas contains the oldest knowledge of yogic teachings which is
the origin of Yoga in India; the yogic teachings found in the Vedas are called “Vedic Yoga”
or “Archaic Yoga.”
Rishis recorded the knowledge of Yoga with the ability to see the ultimate reality
through their intensive spiritual practice. Then this word “yoga” is in the ancient Indian text
as follow;
- The “Rig-Veda" which is the oldest body of knowledge, dates back to around 1500
BC. For example;
1. The first root of the word, "yoga" is in the hymn (5.81.1) of the Rig-Veda, a
dedication to the rising Sun-God in the morning (Savitri), where it has interpreted as “yoke”
or “yogically control” (Burley Mikel, 2000 and Sri Aurobindo, 1995).
2. The earliest of proof Yogis and Yoga tradition found in the Keśin hymn (10.136)
of the Rig-Veda, states (Karel Werner, 1977).
The Rig-Veda, however, does not describe Yoga, and there is little evidence as to what
the practices were (Karel Warner, 1977).
- The Atharva-Veda dated to 1200-1000 BCE, there is a mention of the importance of
the control of breath. For example;
1. In Atharva-Veda, a group of ascetic called “Vratyas” are to show doing some
bodily postures. It is challenging to point exact dates because, in the beginning, the Vedas
were, only, orally passed on from one generation to another.
2. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies mentioned in the Brahmanas
(Texts of the Vedic corpus, 1000-800 BCE) and the Atharva-Veda (Wynne, Alexander,
2007).
So, Vedic Yoga can find in four Vedas as Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and
Atharva-Veda. Also, pieces of evidence that have survived in the Vedas are scarce and
indirect. Nonetheless, the existence of accomplished yogis in Vedic times cannot doubt.
Thereby, Vedic Yoga is determined as a root of Yoga. A master of Vedic Yoga was known as a
“Seer”– Rishi in Sanskrit.
However, researchers are still uncertain as to if Yoga evolved really inside the Vedic
culture or if it evolved before this period. The following facts are significant;
1. It knows that the group, the Indo-Aryans, inhabited the Indus Valley at the time.
Yoga began to be more widely known.
2. It does not know if this group was originally from the Indian subcontinent or
Indo-European interlopers.
3. If the Indo-Aryans were initially from the Indian subcontinent.
Yoga could have developed inside this culture and also in tension to the Vedic
superior religiosity which expressed in the early Vedics is believed to have an entirely
different or opposite focus than the one currently in the Yoga tradition.
4. If the Indo-Aryans were interlopers, Yoga could be Pre-Vedic, and part of a
culture that rejected Indo-Aryans arrived nearly at that time. If that is the case, the late
circulation of Yoga in the Vedic era would be the result of intertwined cultures and beliefs.
Conclusion, Vedic Yoga strives to surpass the limitations of the mind. Therefore,
Vedic Yoga considered a way to connect with the invisible world and revolved around a
sacrifice – a sacrifice of the self. Vedic Yoga aimed to sacrifice of the person's body and soul
to unite with the ultimate God by practice Tapas, Asana, and Samadhi.
Bibliography
Burley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. p. 16.
Karel Werner (1977), Yoga and the Ṛig-Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10,
136),
Religious Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, p. 289–302.
Sri Aurobindo (1916, Reprinted 1995), A Hymn to Savitri V.81, in The Secret of Veda, p.
529.
Wynne, Alexander (2007). The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge.
Vyasa grants Sanjaya divine vision Author: Ramanarayanadatta astri
Credits the photo to Publisher: [Gorakhpur Geeta Press] Possible copyright status: Language: Hindi Call number: AAO-3248 Digitizing sponsor: University of Toronto Book contributor: Robarts - University of Toronto Collection: robarts; toronto Full catalog record: MARCXML [Open Library icon] This book has an editable web page on Open Library.
śamanic period (500–200 BCE)
Ascetic practises, concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have
been precursors to Yoga (Whicher Ian, 1998). Ascetic practises (tapas), concentration and
bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice) might have been precursors
to Yoga. According to (Geoffrey Samuel, 2008), “our best evidence to date suggests that
yogic practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramana movements
(Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.”
Vratya, a group of ascetics cited in the Atharva-Veda, emphasized on bodily postures which
may have evolved into yogic asanas (Jacobsen and Georg Feuerstein, 2011). Initially,
Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis, the keśin, and
Vratyas (Flood, 1996).
Buddhism
Some of the significant sutras that discuss yogic practice include the “Satipatthana
sutra” (Four foundations of mindfulness sutra) and the “Anapanasati sutra” (Mindfulness of
breathing sutra).
The chronology of yoga-related Early Buddhist Manuscripts, however, is unclear, just
like ancient Hindu texts (Samuel, 2008 and Singleton, 2010). Early Buddhist sources like the
“Majjhima Nikāya” refer meditation, while the “Anguttara Nikāya” describes “jhāyins”
(meditators) that imitate early Hindu descriptions of “muni”, “kesins” and meditating
ascetics (Bronkhorst, 1993), however, these meditation-practices are not called yoga in these
texts (White, 2011). The earliest specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature, as
axiomatic in a modern context is from the later Buddhist “Yogācāra” and “Theravada”
schools (White, 2011). Most of the other contemporary yoga systems referred to the same
Buddhist texts lost to time (Douglass, 2011).
Upanishads
The first known appearance of the word “yoga”, with the same meaning as the modern the term, is in the Katha Upanishad (Flood, 1996 and Singleton, 2010), probably composed
between the fifth and third century BCE (Stephen, 2009 and Patrick, 1998), where it
explained as the steady control of the senses, which along with the discontinuance of mental
activity, leading to a supreme state (Flood, 1996). Katha Upanishad conceptions of Sāmkhya
and Yoga defines several levels of existence corresponding to their closeness to the innermost
being atman. Therefore yoga is seen as a process of the ascent of consciousness (Wincher,
1998). It describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents the senses, mind, intellect that comprise the foundational classes of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system
educates the Yoga of the Yoga Sutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other manuscripts and schools
(Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8) (White, 2011). The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, similarly composed in a
later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali's Yoga Sutra,
mentions six-fold yoga method-breath control (pranayama), introspective removal of senses
(pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (Dharana), philosophical
investigation/creative reasoning (Tarka), and absorption/intense spiritual union
(Samadhi) (Singleton, 2010).
Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita
The early form of Yoga called "Nirodhayoga" (Yoga of cessation) composed in the
“Mokshadharma” section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva), in the Mahabharata. (Mallinson
and Singleton, 2017). Nirodhayoga highlights progressive withdrawal from the contents of
empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations until Purusha (Self) realized. Vichara or
Subtle reflection, Viveka (Discrimination), and others which are similar to Patanjali’s
terminology mentioned, but not described Wincher (1998).
There is not a uniform goal of Yoga claimed in the Mahabharata. Separation of self
from matter, experiencing Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman are all described as
goals of Yoga. Sāmkhya and Yoga conflated together, and some verses describe them as
being identical (Jacobsen, 2011).
“Mokshadharma" also describes an early practice of elemental meditation (Wynne,
2007). Mahabharata describes the purpose of Yoga as the experience of uniting the
individual atman with the universal “Brahman” that pervades all things (Jacobsen, 2011)
Bibliography
Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motilal
Banarsidass, pp. 1–24.
Douglass, Laura (2011). “Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptualization Of Yoga As
Therapy
For Individuals With Eating Disorders”. Academic Search Premier: 83.
Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press.
Jacobsen, p. 46.;
Georg Feuerstein (2011), The Bhagavad Gita – A New
Translation, Shambhala.
Mallinson, James;
Singleton, Mark (2017). Roots of Yoga. Penguin Books. OCLC
928480104.
Patrick Olivelle (1998). The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation.
Oxford University
Press. pp. 12–13.
Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press.
Singleton,
Mark (2010). Yoga Body: the origins of modern posture practice. Oxford
University Press. OCLC
318191988.
Stephen Phillips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy.
Columbia
University Press. pp. 28–30.
Whicher, Ian (1998). The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical
Yoga. SUNY
Press.
White, David Gordon (2011), Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of “Yoga in
practice”),
Princeton University Press.
Wynne, Alexander (2007). The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.
Routledge.
Mahabharata Tej Kumar Book Depot Mahavir Prasad Mishra by MahaMuni
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